The Battle of Waterloo

In 1812 Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Russia. The campaign resulted in much of the French army being destroyed. In the period following the loss, during the War of the Sixth Coalition, the Coalition of Europe defeated France several times on the battlefield before Napoleon abdicated his throne on April 6, 1814. He was exiled to the island of Elba while Louis the 16^th became king of France. Napoleon escaped from Elba; however, reaching Europe in 1815, he gathered an army about him and once again called himself emperor of France. Louis left France. The Great Powers of Europe, consisting of England, Austria, Russia, Prussia, and their allies, declared Bonaparte an outlaw. All these events led to war, culminating with the Battle of Waterloo. Three armies fought at Waterloo, Napoleon’s, Arthur Wesley’s Multi-national army, and a Prussian army under Blucher. Napoleon had 72,000 men while his enemies had 118,000 men. These numbers perhaps show just how daring the Emperor was.

After understanding the precursor to the battle, it is important to understand what the battlefield and troop positions were. Waterloo consisted of a long ridge Running east, west, perpendicular to, and bisecting the main road to Brussels. Along the ridge ran the Ohain road. Wesley placed his infantry behind the crest of the ridge following the Ohain, using the reverse slope of the ridge to conceal the strength of his army from the French. In front of the ridge were the three positions that could be fortified. On the extreme right were the Château, orchard, and gardens of Hougoumont, which were largely concealed by trees. On the extreme left was the hamlet of Papelotte. Arthur Wesley fortified both before the battle. On the opposite side of the road there was a disused sand quarry where Wesley placed the 95^th riffles. The Prussians would arrive later during the battle to reinforce the troops at Papelotte. Because Napoleon could not see his adversaries’ lines, he positioned his army along another ridge to the south symmetrically to the Brussels road.

Wesley recorded in his dispatches that at "about ten o'clock [Napoleon] commenced a furious attack upon our post at Hougoumont" The fighting continued around the house the whole afternoon until Napoleon ordered it to be shelled and burned. At 11:50, at another part of the battle, Napoleon’s artillery, numbering eighty guns, opened fire across the battlefield. They were highly ineffective, however, as the ground was soft from the rain on the previous day making the cannon balls unable to bounce and instead just sink into the mud. At 2:00 the French infantry began to attack. To the French left flank Wesley’s line started to weaken, to the right, both sides were damaged badly. Observing how the flank was beginning to crumble, General Uxbridge ordered a British cavalry charge. Two brigades of cavalry quickly rushed over the ridge and attacked the French. Napoleon’s front lines routed away from the flashing sabers and the Emperor hastily ordered a counter-charge. The British had become disorderly, attacking everything within sight. The French had an easy time tearing them apart with their cavalry. The battle continued to rage on with more charges and retreats until the Prussians arrived.

It was 4:30 when the first Prussian reinforcements arrived. They flanked Napoleon and engaged in brutal combat with the bayonet. The French line could not hold against this new attack for long. Slowly, Blucher forced the French back. The combined attacks of the Coalition destroyed what was left of the enemy’s morale. As his men began to rout, Napoleon fought with his bodyguard against the advancing brigades of Blucher and Wesley. Attempts to rally the men failed, and Napoleon was forced to retreat from the battle with a terrible defeat.

Four days after Waterloo, Napoleon abdicated his throne. Napoleon was imprisoned on Saint Helena until he died in 1821. The series of wars that had consumed Europe since the French Revolution ceased. The treaty of Paris was signed, resulting in the boundaries of France being returned to where they were in 1790. Overall, The Battle of Waterloo put an end to Napoleon’s reign, allowing Europe to start to rebuild itself.

The Battle of Forts Montgomery and Clinton

The Battle of Saratoga is often noted as the turning point of the American Revolution. Probably less known, however, is the battle that took place only a day before, on October 6, 1777. The Battle of Forts Clinton and Montgomery, although not victories for the United States, slowed the advance of British troops, which were attempting to reinforce the English at Saratoga. If the forts had not tried to defend from the British, the Battle of Saratoga, and thus the War, may have been lost.

            Throughout the war, the Hudson River was important for transporting men and supplies throughout New England. On May 25, 1775, Congress passes a resolution that "…a post be also taken in the Highlands on each side of Hudson’s River and batteries erected in such a manner as will most effectually prevent any vessels passing that may be sent to harass the inhabitants on the borders of said river…" The eventual location of the fort had been noted for it’s strategic advantage for controlling navigation across the river as early as the seventeenth century. When the fort, named Montgomery, was under construction, the strategic value of an elevated cliff terrace  nearby was also realized and a smaller fort, named Clinton, was built. Fort Montgomery had six 32-pound cannons and a garrison of 700 men; however, at the time of the battle the fort was undermanned.

           

            General Burgoyne, the commander of the English at Saratoga, was running low on men and food. Sir Henry Clinton, also a British general, sent a letter to Burgoyne stating that he would attempt to attack Fort Montgomery and then push onwards to Saratoga to try to relieve Burgoyne. On October 3^rd Sir Henry started to sail up the Hudson River with 3,000 men in three frigates and several smaller vessels. On the foggy morning of October 6^th, 2,100 men landed and encountered a scouting party that Governor Clinton, the commander of the fort, had sent out for reconnaissance. The scouting party retreated back to the fort after a brief exchange of fire. Sir Henry then sent 400 Loyalists and a detachment of Hessians to attack Fort Clinton while he took the remaining force to Fort Montgomery. The detachment at Montgomery numbered 100 men and a few cannons. Although they stood their ground valiantly, the garrison was forced to spike their cannons and retreat. Fort Clinton also was eventually overwhelmed.

Governor Clinton and his brother were able to escape from the battle with a few others by boat but the majority of the survivors of the conflict were taken prisoner. The British casualties were 41 killed and 142 wounded. The Americans had 26 officers and 237 enlisted men captured and about 75 killed and wounded apart from wounded prisoners; most of them from the garrison of Fort Clinton. Captain James Wallace began to clear American-laid obstacles in the river immediately following the battle, but Saratoga was lost October 7^th and he finished on the thirteenth. Even though the forts had not been entirely successful, Clinton was un-able to reinforce Burgoyne.

Was the battle a victory or a defeat? Many were killed and the forts were burnt to the ground; however, Clinton was delayed and Saratoga was won. You will have to answer that question yourself. But no matter what the answer is, it can definitely be said, that The Battle of Forts Montgomery and Clinton were part of the turning point of the American Revolution.